• Holewinski, B. (n.d.). Underground networking: The amazing connections beneath your feet. National Forest Foundation. Retrieved 13 October 2022.

Background: Mushrooms begin in the ground, connecting plants and surrounding tree roots, creating a network called mycelium. A large collection of this is called a “mycorrhizal network.” They can transfer different types of nutrients together and communicate through these connections. Trees can recognize their own species and send water or nutrients to ones that are in need; especially when they send signals to alert danger. The fungi keeps a percentage of these nutrients to stay alive and benefit from the connection. While this is a healthy connection, it is mainly due to survival of each species involved.

How I used it: This article was incredibly helpful to explain the mycorrhizal networks. It was great for describing the connections of trees and how fungi are used to exchange resources and communicate.

• Cuff, Benjamin M.P., et al. “Empathy: A Review of the Concept.” Emotion Review, vol. 8, no. 2, 1 Dec. 2014, pp. 144–153. Retrieved 13 October 2022.

Background: This article defines empathy by collecting a series of varying definitions. It explains how empathy is separate from sympathy, which is defined as “feeling for” another person instead of “feeling as” another person is feeling. The authors debate the difference between cognitive and affective empathy. Cognitive being the simple understanding of another’s emotions, affective being the ability to feel the emotions of another. Empathy is needed to be congruent-very similar, but not identical-to the other’s emotions to avoid being defined as sympathy. It needs to be provoked by a stimuli, whether it be through inference, speech, or witnessing an event. In addition, the person experiencing empathy must be aware they are feeling the emotion caused by an external factor. It’s acknowledged that some may have more capacity to empathize than another people. It is not required to have a reaction to the feeling of empathy, but it often invokes one. Empathy has the potential to be controlled based on perception.

How I used it: This source created a definition of empathy for me to reflect onto plants. I could explain how the behavior related to this definition in a more scientific way.

• Stueber, Karsten. “Empathy.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 27 June 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2022.

Background: Stueber describes Social Psychologist, C.D. Batson’s, “altruism-empathy thesis.” It is a hypothesis about how empathy can lead to altruism in others. They feel compelled to help another person if they feel sympathy, leading them to have “helping behavior.” Stueber then explains how empathy could have an egotistical effect on altruism. People may help because it would alleviate the negative emotions felt through empathy. It could heighten their social status and make them feel better. The author reminds readers that empathy can cause altruism, but it does not always lead to it. Psychologist R.B. Cialdini has a different perspective. He argues empathy motivates altruism because people feel a unity when experiencing the emotion. This influences them enough to want to help people.

How I used it: I used this journal to show how empathy typically leads to altruism. It was a bridge to connect plant behavior to altruism to empathy.

• Rice, G. E., & Rainer, P. (1962). “Altruism” in the albino rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. Retrieved 17 October 2022.

Background: The researchers conducted an experiment of the altruism of animals. The study was done by placing one rat in a chamber and suspending it above the other rat. The rat in the chamber would receive shocks and show signs of distress.  At the level of the second rat, a bar could be pressed to lower the hoisted rat and stop the shocks. Group 1 had rats trained to press the bar, while rats in Group 2 had no training to press the bar. The rats in Group 2 pressed the bar nearly as many times as Group 1, proving they have responded to distress and show altruistic tendencies.

How I used it: The study was a great comparison to show that animals are seen as having altruism, and plants show that same behavior. I could then connect it to empathetic behavior.

• Ueda, H., Kikuta, Y., & Matsuda, K. (2012, February 1). Plant Communication: Mediated by individual or blended vocs? Plant signaling & behavior. Retrieved November 7, 2022.

Background: When a plant is harmed, it alerts other plants within a certain range using “volatile organic compounds,” or VOC. Other plants plan for defense in response. This could be because of the high concentration of VOC used in the experiment that may not be natural in the wild. This is a developed communication system in reaction to various dangers, such as disease or injury, to strengthen survival. VOCs can be used for various things, like calling pollinators, allowing plants to create specific messages for their needs. This study focuses on “plant-plant communication.” Certain blends of the synthetic VOC varieties would trigger other plants, but some did not. It may be unreliable because it is synthetic and not natural.

How I used it: This article explained how some distress signals that plants use are sent. I was able to relate it to how plants create a community with communication and caring behavior.

• New Research on Plant Intelligence may forever change how you think about plants. The World from PRX. (2014, January 10). Retrieved November 7, 2022.

Background: An author of multiple plant-based research novels, Michael Pollan, discusses “neurobiology” in plants. He describes how plants can react and respond to stimuli in an intuitive way. In a study, they responding to just the sound of a caterpillar eating leaves and sent distress signals. He believes that have similar senses to humans along with detecting obstacles in the way of growth, water, and gravity. They even have dopamine and serotonin neurotransmitters.

Monica Gagliano, an animal biologist, studied the plant mimosa pudica; which would close its ferns when disturbed. She discovered that after repeatedly dropping the plant without inflicting harm, it would stop reacting by closing. This could prove that plants have a memory and some type of intelligence. It could also be seen as simply a “problem-solving ability.”

How I used it: I mostly used the evidence from the second paragraph of the background in my paper. I explained that plants shows signs of intelligence due to their learning ability. It helped reader’s get an idea of what plants can be capable of.

• Simard, S. (2022). Finding the mother tree. Random House US.

Background: The author, Suzanne Simard, researches communication and intelligence in plants. Simard has ventured out on many expeditions to study the connections in nature, specifically the networks underground. She details her findings in the following novel. A lot of her research focuses on mycorrhizal networks and how the trees in a forest use them to benefit themselves and the community. She discovered that the network highly resembles a human brain, and that trees can recognize their kin, sending more resources to those younger saplings.

How I used it: Simard’s book helped me a lot to explain what a mycorrhizal network can allow trees to do. I used the source multiple times, describing how the network resembles a brain, how Douglas fir trees help the environment, and how different trees interact with other to benefit the community.

• Tiaz, Lincoln, et al. “Plants Neither Possess nor Require Consciousness – Sciencedirect.” Science Direct, Aug. 2019. Retrieved November 29, 2022.

Background: The article discusses evidence of plants with cognitive behavior, then refutes the sources, claiming plants so not have sufficient evidence to claim consciousness. The authors mention plant’s learning abilities and the root systems that resemble neural connections, then explain that a real brain cannot be reduced to such simple terms in it’s description. Pain is also mentioned as plants send out distress signals, yet they do not have the sensory components such as an amygdala or a brain stem to have access to such notions. Plants are compared to animals in their capabilities, yet plants did not have the same process of evolution to be considered conscious beings.

How I used it: I used this source as my counterargument, since it argues that plants do not have consciousness. I could them rebuttal the author’s points to strengthen my argument.

• Paszkowski, U., & Gutjahr, C. (1AD, January 1). Multiple control levels of root system remodeling in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Frontiers. Retrieved November 21, 2022.

Background: Fungi create root systems called arbuscular mycorrhizal networks, which connect themselves to the roots of plants, penetrating it’s cells, and create a symbiotic relationship. This helps plants extend roots further and form more branches, allowing them to access greater nutrients from the soil. Fungi provide phosphate and nitrogen in return for nutrients the plants contain, like carbon. The connection overall benefits each plant and fungi greatly, expanding growth and health of the ecosystem.

How I used it: I used this article to re-explain the mycorrhizal network. It went a little more in depth about how the fungi could benefit, instead of just the trees.

• Castiello, U. (2021). (Re)claiming plants in comparative psychology. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 135(1), 127–141.

Background: Comparative Psychology reveals that plants are capable of intelligence. Plants have embodied cognition, extended cognition, and enactivism, special types of cognition that allow them to perceive and interact with their environment. They have the ability to use signals to communicate with other plants and the environment around them. In addition, plants can use short-term memory for learning capabilities, like remembering that a certain type of stimulation will not harm them. They can make choices on where to grow and explore areas best suited to their health and prosperity; as well as sensing environmental risks and adapt to what is bested suited for their growth. Plant intelligence even extends to “self-recognition,” being able to know what species they are and discern other plants of their own species. Like animals, they can create “families,” grouping and cooperating together to share nutrients and resources. They also interact with other organisms, sending signals to pollinators to exchange benefits. They have multiple forms of cognition without a central nervous system.

How I used it: This was my best source to argue for plant intelligence. If a reader agrees that a plant has intelligence, they are more likely to agree with my empathy argument. I explained all of the types of cognition and how plants demonstrated them through their behavior.

• Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Plants Communicate Distress Using Their Own Kind of Nervous System.” Science, 13 Sept. 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2022.

Background: Plants have a type of nervous system that is able to alert other plants of “distress.” Nerve cells in animals send distress signals using glutamate. Scientists discovered that plant cells have a similar way of sending information, using glutamate as well. With a sensor that detects calcium, they cut the lead off a plant and saw how the calcium spreads from the cut area to the rest of the plant. They discovered glutamate sent the signal. This proves plants have an internal communication similar to animals without having a brain.

How I used it: This article was part of my original research to understand how plants interact. It ended up telling me I had to pay to see the article again, so I didn’t reference it in my paper. I would have used it if I had access, but I believe it still helped me understand plant behavior better.